Lucy Mission: First Spacecraft to Explore Jupiter’s Trojan Asteroids

NASA’s Lucy mission marks a new era in space exploration, as it is the first spacecraft launched with the specific aim of exploring the Trojan asteroids. These asteroids are a population of primitive celestial bodies that share Jupiter’s orbit, making them unique targets for scientific study. However, the spacecraft is set to embark on a series of multiple flybys of these asteroids, providing a close-up look at these “fossils” of planetary formation. With its launch date set for October 16, 2021, the Lucy mission represents a significant step forward in our understanding of the formation and evolution of our solar system.

Now before we discuss Lucy you might be wondering,

What are Trojan asteroids and what is the role of Lucy in their exploration?

The Trojan asteroids are small celestial bodies in our solar system. They are unique because they were left over from the formation of giant planets like Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. These asteroids are remnants of the raw materials that came together to create the planets in our solar system. As a result, they are valuable targets for study.

An American planetary scientist Harold F. Levison says: “The Trojan Asteroids are leftovers from the early days of our solar system, effectively the fossils of planet formation.”

Unlike the objects in the main asteroid belt located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, the Trojan asteroids share Jupiter’s orbit around the sun, but they stay close to Jupiter’s L4 and L5 Lagrange points, which are gravitational stable locations in space. Moreover, the Trojan asteroids are on average just as far from Jupiter as Jupiter is from the Sun, and they are also known to be almost as numerous as the objects in the main asteroid belt. The Jupiter and Trojan asteroids are small, with the largest being around 160 miles (250 km) across. The asteroids are in a constant gravitational tug-of-war between the Sun and Jupiter.

Furthermore, this causes them to remain in the vicinity of Jupiter’s L4 and L5 Lagrange points. These points are located 60 degrees ahead and behind Jupiter. They form an equilateral triangle with the Sun. This makes the Lagrange points ideal places for the asteroids to remain in a stable orbit.

Lucy is the first spacecraft to explore Jupiter’s Trojan asteroids. It will fly by a total of eight asteroids over the next 12 years. This includes one main-belt asteroid and seven Trojans. This makes it the first single spacecraft mission in history to explore so many asteroids. The spacecraft’s journey will provide an up-close investigation of these “fossils” of planetary formation. This will provide invaluable insights into the formation and evolution of our solar system.

Now, we got you covered if you are thinking,

What are the objectives of Lucy’s mission?

NASA’s Lucy mission is an ambitious undertaking that aims to explore a record-breaking number of asteroids, including one asteroid in the solar system’s main asteroid belt and seven Trojan asteroids.

The Lucy mission has scientific objectives. It aims to achieve them by flying by and performing remote sensing on eight different Trojan asteroids during five flybys. The mission aims to study these asteroids in unprecedented detail. It seeks to provide insights into the formation and evolution of our solar system.

The primary objectives of the mission are to study the asteroids’ geological history, composition, and internal structure, providing valuable insights into the formation and evolution of our solar system.

By flying by and performing remote sensing on these asteroids, the Lucy spacecraft will also collect data on their albedo, shape, and size-frequency distributions. Yet, this data will allow scientists to create detailed maps of the asteroids’ surface features, including their crustal structure, layering, and relative ages of surface units.

In addition, the mission will study the color, composition, and properties of the regolith on the asteroids’ surface. By determining the distribution of minerals, ices, and organic species, the mission will provide clues to the asteroids’ formation and evolution, shedding light on the processes that led to the formation of planets like Earth.

The Lucy mission has a goal to determine the masses and densities of the Trojan asteroids. This information will provide insights into their internal structure and composition. To achieve this, the mission will study sub-surface composition through excavation by craters, fractures, ejecta blankets, and exposed bedding. By doing so, the mission will gain a better understanding of the asteroids’ bulk properties.

The Lucy spacecraft has a dual mission. Firstly, it will search for rings and satellites of the Trojan asteroids. This could give us valuable insights into how these asteroids formed and evolved. Secondly, the mission will investigate the potential for hazardous impacts from these asteroids. This will help us better understand how to protect Earth from asteroid impacts.

By studying the Trojan asteroid’s geological history, composition, and internal structure, the mission aims to advance our understanding of the early solar system and the processes that led to the formation of planets like Earth.

Now, let’s dig into the,

Launch of Lucy

NASA’s Lucy mission launch on October 16, 2021, using a United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket from Cape Canaveral Space Force Station in Florida. This mission is the first spacecraft to explore Jupiter’s Trojan asteroids. Moreover, it will also fly by a total of eight asteroids over the next 12 years. Furthermore, the spacecraft’s mission is to investigate the Trojan asteroids, which are remnants of the material that formed giant planets, and provide information about the formation and evolution of our solar system.

Lucy's orbital path — This diagram illustrates Lucy’s orbital path. The spacecraft’s path (green) is shown in a frame of reference where Jupiter remains stationary, giving the trajectory its pretzel-like shape. **Credit: Southwest Research Institute**

Hal Levison, Lucy’s principal investigator at Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) in Boulder, Colorado quoted: “We started working on the Lucy mission concept early in 2014, so this launch has been long in the making,” He added, “It will still be several years before we get to the first Trojan asteroid, but these objects are worth the wait and all the effort because of their immense scientific value. They are like diamonds in the sky.”

Journey of Lucy!

Lucy’s Trojan destinations are located near Jupiter’s Lagrange points, where smaller masses can be trapped. One swarm of Trojans is ahead of Jupiter, and another is behind it. In 2022, during its initial Earth gravity assist, Lucy’s trajectory will accelerate and redirect beyond the orbit of Mars. After that, the spacecraft will return to Earth for a second gravity assist in 2024. Lucy’s journey towards the Donald Johanson asteroid. The Donald Johanson asteroid is present in the main asteroid belt of the solar system. Lucy will arrive at the Donald Johanson asteroid in 2025.

In 2027, Lucy will also travel towards the swarm located ahead of Jupiter to encounter its first Trojan asteroid. After completing its first four targeted flybys, the spacecraft will travel back to Earth for a third gravity boost in 2031, which will also catapult it to the trailing swarm of Trojans for a 2033 encounter.

“Today we celebrate this incredible milestone and look forward to the discoveries that Lucy will uncover,” said Donya Douglas-Bradshaw, Lucy project manager at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, after the launch.

The spacecraft’s two solar arrays, each measuring nearly 24 feet in width, unfurled successfully about 30 minutes after launch and also began charging the spacecraft’s batteries to power its subsystems. Yet, at 6:40 a.m., Lucy sent its first signal to Earth from its antenna to NASA’s Deep Space Network. Lucy’s mission is the 13th in NASA’s Discovery Program, overseen by NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.

Lastly,

The end of the mission:

Lastly, when the Lucy mission will be nearing its end. The spacecraft will travel on a stable orbit from near the Earth’s orbit to the Trojan Swarms and back again. The team plans to orbit the spacecraft carefully to avoid contamination for over a century. In the future, if nobody collects Lucy as a historical artifact, the spacecraft’s orbit will become unstable. Jupiter’s gravitational pull could fling it out of the Solar System or send it crashing into the Sun. However, the legacy of the Lucy mission will inspire future generations. In such a way, they explore the mysteries of our Solar System and the vast universe beyond.

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16 min read

Voyager Mission: Exploring the Outer reaches of the Solar System!

For more than four decades, NASA’s Voyager spacecraft have been venturing into the farthest reaches of our solar system and beyond. Voyager Mission Launched in 1977, the twin spacecraft. The purpose of Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 was to explore the outer planets of our solar system and study their atmospheres, rings, and moons. However, their mission didn’t end there. Both Voyager probes continue to send data back to Earth as they travel through interstellar space, becoming the first human-made objects to do so.

Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 — This infographic highlights the mission’s major milestones, including visiting the four outer planets and exiting the heliosphere, or the protective bubble of magnetic fields and particles created by the Sun. **Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech**

Before we go further, let’s dig into the mission with a brief,

Overview:

NASA’s Voyager mission is one of the most remarkable space exploration initiatives to date. Approved in May 1972, this mission has allowed us to gain knowledge about the outer planets that had not existed in all of the preceding histories of astronomy and planetary science. The Voyagers have been working tirelessly for over three decades and continue to provide valuable information about our universe. This article will explore some fascinating facts about the Voyager mission.

You should also know,

What was the cost of the Voyager Mission?

The total cost of the Voyager mission, including launch vehicles, radioactive power sources (RTGs), and DSN tracking support, is 865 million dollars. While this may sound expensive, it’s essential to put it in perspective. On a per-capita basis, the cost is only 8 cents per U.S. resident per year or roughly half the cost of one candy bar each year since project inception. Moreover, the entire cost of Voyager is a fraction of the daily interest on the U.S. national debt.

Effort and Time Devoted:

A total of 11,000 workers were devoted to the Voyager project through the Neptune encounter. This is equivalent to one-third of the effort estimated to complete the great pyramid at Giza to King Cheops. It’s an incredible feat that highlights the dedication and perseverance of the skilled personnel involved in this mission.

Now, we will be discussing the objectives of the mission.

What are the Objectives of the Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM)?

The Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM) aims to push NASA’s exploration of the solar system beyond the outer planets. It seeks to reach the farthest limits of the Sun’s sphere of influence and beyond. The mission is an extension of the initial objective. It aims to study the outer solar system environment and identify the heliopause boundary. Additionally, it seeks to explore the outer limits of the Sun’s magnetic field and study the outward flow of the solar wind.

The VIM is an ongoing mission that continues to provide valuable insights into the outer regions of our solar system. The heliopause boundary separates the solar wind and interstellar medium. If it’s penetrated, measurements can be made. These measurements will be unaffected by the solar wind and will pertain to interstellar fields, particles, and waves.

Now, let’s discuss each spacecraft separately in detail. We will be starting with the,

Voyager 1 – Overview:

Voyager 1, launched by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in 1977, is the farthest spacecraft from Earth.

The primary mission of Voyager 1 was to fly by Jupiter and Saturn. However, it crossed into interstellar space in August 2012. Voyager 1 still transmits valuable data back to Earth. Voyager 1 and its sister spacecraft, Voyager 2, have been in operation for over four decades. This makes them the longest-running spacecraft in history.

NASA’s Voyager 1 Spacecraft Illustration **Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech**

These missions provide unparalleled observations of space, and they have helped scientists understand energy and radiation in space. This data is critical for the future of space exploration, including protecting future missions and astronauts. The Voyager 1 spacecraft weighs 1,592 pounds (721.9 kilograms) and was launched using a Titan IIIE-Centaur rocket from Launch Complex 41 at Cape Canaveral, Florida on September 5, 1977. NASA and JPL manage the mission design and operation.

Voyager 1 has a copy of the Golden Record on board. The record serves as a message from humanity to the cosmos. It contains greetings in 55 different languages. It also has photographs of people and places on Earth. The record includes music from various cultures. The music includes classical compositions by Beethoven and a rock ‘n’ roll hit “Johnny B. Goode” by Chuck Berry.

Now, let’s find out the,

What are the objectives of Voyager 1?

The main objective of Voyager 1 was to conduct a flyby of Jupiter and Saturn and to study their moons and rings in detail. Additionally, the spacecraft was tasked with collecting data on the interstellar medium and the boundary between our solar system and interstellar space.

Voyager 1, a spacecraft, has a golden record on board that contains sounds and images representing humanity. The record includes in case the spacecraft is ever found by extraterrestrial life. The Voyager 1 mission was successful. It exceeded expectations and provided insights into our solar system and beyond. The mission was valuable.

If you are wondering,

How Voyager 1 has achieved these objectives?

To achieve its objectives, Voyager 1 was equipped with a suite of scientific instruments. This allows it to capture high-resolution images of planets and moons, and analyze ultraviolet light. Moreover, it allows measuring the temperature and composition of gases in outer planet atmospheres. The spacecraft also conducted various studies. Voyager 1 studied radio signals emitted by planets. Furthermore, measured the polarization of sunlight reflected by planets. It measured magnetic fields around planets. It also measured charged particles in magnetospheres and the interplanetary medium. Additionally, Voyager 1 detected and analyzed radio and plasma waves in magnetospheres. The Voyager 1 spacecraft had various scientific objectives. One of them was to measure cosmic rays in the interstellar medium. It also studied the atmospheres, ionospheres, and rings of planets and moons. It accomplished this through the use of a Radio Science System.

What achievements did Voyager one have made so far?

Voyager 1’s achievements have been groundbreaking and have paved the way for future space exploration missions. Voyager 1 has achieved many milestones throughout its mission, including being the first spacecraft to cross the heliosphere, the boundary where the influences outside our solar system are stronger than those from our Sun. As a result, it became the first human-made object to venture into interstellar space.

Voyager 1 also made important discoveries about the outer planets during its journey. For example, it discovered a thin ring around Jupiter and two new Jovian moons: Thebe and Metis. At Saturn, Voyager 1 found five new moons and a new ring called the G-ring.

In addition to its planetary discoveries, Voyager 1 carried a suite of scientific instruments that allowed it to study the space environment in great detail. The data returned from these instruments has helped to further our understanding of the solar wind, cosmic rays, and the structure of the heliosphere.

Its legacy as a trailblazing spacecraft continues to inspire scientists and engineers alike.

Now, its time to dig into the,

Voyager 2- Overview:

Voyager 2 has been a groundbreaking mission that has provided us with a wealth of information about our solar system’s outer reaches. It is one of NASA’s most iconic spacecraft. The spacecraft was launched on August 20, 1977, from Cape Canaveral, Florida. The purpose of spacecraft was built to take advantage of a rare planetary alignment to explore the outer planets of our solar system. Weighing 1,592 pounds (721.9 kilograms), Voyager 2 is similar to its twin spacecraft, Voyager 1, and is managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.

NASA’s Voyager 2 Spacecraft Illustration **Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech**

The spacecraft was launched aboard a Titan IIIE-Centaur launch vehicle, also known as TC-7, from Launch Complex 41 in Cape Canaveral. After launch, Voyager 2 began its journey towards Jupiter, where it arrived in 1979. The spacecraft continued to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, becoming the first and only spacecraft to visit these outer planets. Its successful mission made Voyager 2 the second human-made object to enter interstellar space after its twin, Voyager 1.

One of the key features of Voyager 2 was its scientific instrumentation. The spacecraft carried a suite of scientific instruments designed to study the atmospheres, surfaces, and magnetic fields of the outer planets and the space between them. The data collected by Voyager 2 has greatly expanded our knowledge of the outer solar system and provided invaluable insights into the nature of these distant planets and their moons.

It remains an active spacecraft, and scientists continue to study the data it sent back to Earth, as well as the conditions of interstellar space that it is currently exploring.

What are the objectives of Voyager 2?

The purpose of Voyager 2 was to explore the outer planets of our solar system, which include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. To achieve this objective, the spacecraft had various scientific instruments such as cameras, spectrometers, magnetometers, and particle detectors. These tools helped in studying the planets, moons, rings, and atmospheres.

The mission also had a secondary objective, which was to study the heliosphere. This area is affected by the solar wind, and Voyager 2’s instruments were used to study the solar wind’s properties, interplanetary magnetic fields, and other outer solar system phenomena.

What are the features of Voyager 2?

The management of Voyager 2n is under JPL. However, NASA designs this space craft with a suite of scientific instruments to study the outer planets and the edge of our solar system. Its instruments included an Imaging Science System (ISS), Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS), Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS), Planetary Radio Astronomy Experiment (PRA), Photopolarimeter (PPS), Triaxial Fluxgate Magnetometer (MAG), Plasma Spectrometer (PLS), Low-Energy Charged Particles Experiment (LECP), Plasma Waves Experiment (PWS), Cosmic Ray Telescope (CRS), and Radio Science System (RSS). The ISS captured visible and infrared light images, the UVS provided atmospheric composition insights, and the IRIS measured thermal radiation to reveal planet temperatures and compositions. The other instruments measured the properties of plasma, magnetic fields, and cosmic ray fluxes to provide information about the outer solar system and the heliopause boundary.

What achievements have Voyager 2 made so far?

Voyager 2 is a remarkable spacecraft with numerous accomplishments. It is the only spacecraft to have studied all four of the giant planets of our solar system up close. During its mission, Voyager 2 discovered a 14th moon at Jupiter, and at Uranus, it discovered 10 new moons and two new rings. Voyager 2 made history as the first human-made object to fly past Uranus and then by Neptune, where it discovered five moons, four rings, and a “Great Dark Spot.”

These incredible discoveries would not have been possible without the scientific instruments onboard Voyager 2, such as the Imaging Science System (ISS), Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS), and Planetary Radio Astronomy Experiment (PRA), among others. The data returned by Voyager 2 has revolutionized our understanding of the outer solar system and has helped us unravel some of the mysteries of our universe.

Lastly, we will be concluding the whole discussion with a,

Conclusion:

Interstellar Space Exploration — This illustration shows the current positions of NASA’s Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 probes: far outside the heliosphere, in interstellar space.
**Image courtesy of NASA/JPL-Caltech**

NASA’s Voyager Interstellar Mission is a testament to human ingenuity, curiosity, and perseverance.

On the whole, Voyager has accomplished bold objectives and made remarkable achievements. It has rewritten the textbooks on our understanding of our solar system and the universe beyond. Voyager launched over four decades ago and is still journeying into interstellar space. It has inspired scientists, engineers, and space enthusiasts to push boundaries. We continue to receive data and insights from Voyager, leading to more discoveries and surprises in the cosmos.

Space Missions
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8 min read

ESA Hera Mission: Measuring the Impact of NASA’s DART on Dimorphos

The European Space Agency (ESA) has announced its upcoming Hera mission. The mission aims to follow up on the success of NASA’s DART mission. On September 26, 2022, the NASA DART team changed the orbit of an asteroid named Dimorphos. They did this using the DART spacecraft through a kinetic impact. This marked a significant milestone in asteroid deflection technology. NASA confirmed that the mission impact changed the asteroid’s motion in space. Debris blasted from the surface of Dimorphos was observed by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope on October 8, 2022. ESA Hera mission aims to measure the impact of the DART mission on Dimorphos, enabling scientists to better understand how to protect Earth from potentially harmful asteroids. Additionally, it will help advocate for more planetary defense missions in the future.

Before we go any further, we should know,

Hera Mission Overview:

The Hera mission has a budget of €6 billion. The launch will be on October 2024 and will use an Ariane 6.4 launcher, with a Falcon 9 launcher as a backup. The spacecraft will perform a deep-space maneuver 2-3 weeks after launch. It will then fly by Mars in March 2025 at an altitude of 5000-8000 km before heading towards Didymos. There is also the possibility of an asteroid flyby during the cruise phase. Upon arrival at Didymos, Hera will also perform a capture sequence consisting of five maneuvers. This is expected to occur in January or early February 2027, with backup opportunities available in 2025 and also 2026. The arrival at Didymos will result in late 2030 or early 2031.

Five phases:

The Hera mission will consist of five phases after it reaches Didymos. The first phase is the Early Characterization Phase, which will take six weeks and focus on determining the global shape, mass/gravity, thermal, and dynamical properties of both asteroids. The next phase is the Payload Deployment Phase, which will center on releasing the two CubeSats and supporting their early operations.

Moreover, the Detailed Characterization Phase comes first and lasts four weeks. In this phase, Hera and its CubeSats will map asteroids at a meter-scale and determine their thermal, spectral, and interior properties through measurements.

The fourth phase is the Close Observation Phase, which lasts six weeks. This phase allows for high-resolution investigations of a large fraction of the surface area of Dimorphos, including the DART impact crater. This will be accomplished through 12 close flybys, with a pericenter distance of 4 km. The final phase is the Experimental Phase, which lasts six weeks. This phase will demonstrate innovative navigation techniques to achieve flybys at lower altitudes, down to 1 km or less. The goal is to enhance the resolution of Dimorphos’ morphological, spectral, and thermal properties, specifically in selected targets such as the DART impact crater, to the level of decimeters.

The Hera spacecraft will land on Didymos, providing high-resolution data on the primary in the process, marking the end of the mission.

Now, let’s find out the,

What are the objectives of the Hera mission?

The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Space Safety Program is developing the Hera mission, scheduled for launch in October 2024, with the primary goal of exploring a binary asteroid starting in December 2026, as part of a planetary defense mission. The Hera mission will provide valuable insights into asteroid science. Moreover, it will help in improving our understanding of the asteroid impact threat mitigation, mining, and scientific purposes. It aims to investigate the subsurface and also interior properties of the binary asteroid and measure the outcome of a kinetic impactor test, which will provide valuable information for asteroid impact threat mitigation, mining, and scientific purposes. The Hera mission is based on the previous Asteroid Impact Mission (AIM) concept and will contribute substantially to asteroid science.

Hera will characterize the first binary near-Earth asteroid. It will constrain the surface structure and regolith mobility on both Didymos and Dimorphos. This mission offers a unique opportunity to study the surface geophysics of two objects of different sizes and surface gravity. Regarding the deflection demonstration, Hera has several goals. These include determining Dimorphos’ mass to assess the momentum transfer efficiency from DART’s impact. It also involves studying the resulting crater to enhance our knowledge of the cratering mechanism. Additionally, Hera will examine both the exterior and interior of Dimorphos to enable scaling of the momentum transfer efficiency to other asteroids.

So, now let’s dig into the construction and features of,

Hera Spacecraft:

The Hera spacecraft is set to be equipped with advanced technology that will enable it to navigate safely through the double-asteroid system. Moreover, the spacecraft will utilize automated guidance, navigation, and control systems, which function like self-driving cars. The body of the spacecraft will be desk-sized and house a variety of instruments, including an optical Asteroid Framing Camera. Additionally, it will have thermal and spectral imagers, as well as a laser altimeter that will aid in surface mapping.

The Hera spacecraft consists of three spacecraft, which includes two CubeSats that are as small as shoeboxes, and will be transported near Dimorphos. One of the CubeSats, called Juventas, will carry out an extraordinary radar investigation of the asteroid’s internal structure. Juventas will also have instruments like a gravimeter and an accelerometer to measure the asteroid’s weak gravitational pull and its response to outside forces. Milani, the second CubeSat, will perform near-infrared spectral imaging and collect dust samples from asteroids. Through an innovative inter-satellite link system, the CubeSat duo will maintain communication with both their Hera mother craft and each other. This arrangement will provide valuable insights into managing multiple spacecraft in the unusual near-weightless environment. Ultimately, the CubeSats will land on Dimorphos.

The Hera mission will provide significant knowledge about the makeup and arrangement of the binary asteroid system. With these advanced features, scientists hope to better understand how to defend against potentially hazardous asteroids.

So let’s sum up the whole mission in a short,

Conclusion:

On the whole, ESA’s Hera mission is a crucial step in better understanding how to protect Earth from potentially harmful asteroids. In October 2024, the mission will explore a binary asteroid and measure the impact of NASA’s DART mission. The spacecraft’s advanced technology will allow scientists to study the binary asteroid’s subsurface and interior properties. Additionally, the mission will perform the first comprehensive characterization of a binary near-Earth asteroid, which will contribute substantially to asteroid science.

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Space Missions
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10 min read

ESA’s JUICE Mission to Study Jupiter’s 3 Icy Moons!

The “Juice mission” (Jupiter Icy moons Explorer) is an exciting and ambitious project by the European Space Agency (ESA) to explore Jupiter and its three icy moons – Ganymede, Europa, and Callisto – in depth. With a launch date set for April 13, 2023, the mission aims to explore these moons and gain insights into their composition, geology, and potential habitability. The “Juice mission” will help us unlock new insights about our solar system and the potential for life beyond Earth by utilizing advanced technologies and scientific instrumentation.

First, let’s find out,

What is the Juice Mission?

The “Juice mission” is an ambitious project by the European Space Agency (ESA) to explore Jupiter and three of its icy moons – Ganymede, Europa, and Callisto – in depth. This mission aims to gather critical information about the composition and potential habitability of these celestial bodies. It is considered a groundbreaking effort because it will utilize advanced technologies and scientific instrumentation to unlock new insights about our solar system. Ultimately, the “Juice mission” will help us better understand the potential for life beyond Earth.

An Ariane 5 rocket from the European Spaceport located in Kourou, French Guiana, will be utilized to launch this mission. Once launched, JUICE will embark on a 7 to 8-year journey to reach Jupiter. The spacecraft will utilize Earth and Venus gravity assists along the way. Upon arrival in 2031, JUICE will go into orbit around Jupiter. It will optimize its orbit using flybys of Ganymede and Callisto, as well as flybys of Europa.

Artist’s concept of JUICE spacecraft at Jupiter. **Image Credit: ESA**

The spacecraft will first be entered into a highly elliptical orbit around Ganymede. This orbit will gradually evolve into a 5000 km circular orbit. After that, JUICE will lower its orbit to 500 km and then to 200 km. It will conduct mapping and other investigations at each altitude. The nominal mission is set to last for approximately 3 years. However, there is a possibility of an extension to the mission of 200 or more days. Regardless, the mission will end with an impact on the surface of Ganymede.

The launch of this mission has raised hundreds of questions. People are wondering why the European Space Agency needs to send another spacecraft if they have already launched such spacecraft in space. However, the following question might answer a few questions,

What are the objectives of the JUICE Mission?

The “Juice mission” aims to explore Jupiter and three of its icy moons – Ganymede, Europa, and Callisto – to gain insights into the evolution and habitability of icy worlds around Jupiter. The mission takes advantage of the findings from earlier expeditions such as Voyager 1 and 2, Galileo, and Cassini, which allowed us to examine the largest moons of the giant planets more closely. Once considered lifeless, frigid collections of ice and stone, these moons are now known to be planet-like bodies with fascinating pasts.

The exploration of icy moons has expanded our scope in the search for life in the Universe. Scientists used to focus their search for extraterrestrial life on planets with Earth-like environments, such as Mars, but recent discoveries suggest that icy moons may also have the potential to support life, as they could contain liquid water oceans beneath their icy crusts. The question remains whether life could exist in the seabeds of these distant moons, similar to life on Earth around hydrothermal vents.

This is where the “Juice mission” comes in. With its advanced technologies and scientific instrumentation, Juice will explore the icy moons of Jupiter and gather critical information about their composition, geology, and potential habitability. By studying the subsurface oceans, Juice will help us unlock new insights into the conditions necessary for life to exist beyond Earth.

Juice’s data may also be useful for systems around Jupiter-like exoplanets, expanding our search for life in the Universe. In summary, the Juice mission is the European Space Agency’s boldest mission to date, with the potential to greatly enhance our understanding of our solar system and the potential for life beyond Earth.

Now you probably might be wondering,

How will the JUICE spacecraft achieve its objectives?

JUICE is scheduled to arrive at Jupiter in 2031. This will mark the beginning of its ambitious mission, which is to study Jupiter’s icy moons in detail. The solar-powered spacecraft will orbit Jupiter for 2.5 years. It will also make close flybys of the planet’s three largest moons: Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Thanks to the spacecraft’s ability to fly within 200 to 1,000 kilometers (about 120 to 620 miles) of the moons, close studies will be possible. This will allow for unprecedented detail in the study of these moons.

JUICE Mission Milestones. **Image Credit: ESA**

In the first phase of the mission, JUICE will fly by Europa twice and Ganymede and Callisto 12 times each. During the last phase of its mission, JUICE will enter the orbit of Ganymede. This will make history, as it will be the first spacecraft to orbit a moon other than Earth’s. JUICE weighs 4,800 kilograms (about 10,600 pounds). This means that it requires nearly 3,000 kilograms (roughly 6,600 pounds) of fuel to execute the complex trajectories necessary for its mission. JUICE’s 10 cutting-edge instruments weigh only 104 kilograms (230 pounds) thanks to the European Space Agency’s past missions.

Hopefully, this mission will also be a great success. However, we got some insights for you on,

How will JUICE study the Galilean moons?

The Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer, or JUICE, is designed to study the icy moons of Jupiter in unprecedented detail. During its journey, JUICE will only conduct two flybys of Europa, approaching as close as 250 miles (400 kilometers) to the moon’s icy terrain on each of these passes. This is because Europa orbits Jupiter at a distance of 417,000 miles (671,000 km), and any spacecraft that stays that close to the planet would survive only a few months, at best, due to Jupiter’s extreme size and powerful magnetic field.

Similarly, JUICE will perform 21 flybys of Callisto, getting as close as 120 miles (200 km) from its surface. Callisto and Europa are two distinct worlds with noticeable differences. Callisto has a surface covered with numerous craters, and scientists believe it is the oldest surface in the solar system. Currently, it is not clear whether Callisto contains a subsurface ocean, which is present in Europa and Ganymede. Fortunately, JUICE will provide insight into this question.

JUICE will perform 12 flybys of Ganymede and approach as near as 250 miles to the moon, which is magnetically active, before finally achieving an orbit around it. Ganymede, 665,000 miles (1.07 million km) from Jupiter, is less likely than Europa to support life. JUICE may discover something unexpected. JUICE will orbit Jupiter for 2.5 years. It will often be within 200 to 1,000 kilometers (120 to 620 miles) of the icy moons. During the mission’s final phase, JUICE will closely study Ganymede for a minimum of nine months. The spacecraft will orbit a moon other than ours for the first time. JUICE’s 10 state-of-the-art instruments will provide valuable data on these distant moons’ composition, geology, and habitability.

Let’s conclude this discussion,

Conclusion:

On the whole, the ESA’s Juice mission is expected to bring valuable information about Jupiter’s moon. The spacecraft is ready to study Jupiter’s icy moons. This groundbreaking project will unlock new insights into our solar system and the potential of life beyond Earth. The Juice spacecraft will utilize advanced technologies and will enter into orbit around Jupiter in 2031. It will surely provide unprecedented detail to make close studies possible. JUICE will help us understand the evolution and habitability of icy worlds around Jupiter and expand our scope in the search for life in the Universe. Cosmologists are counting on JUICE to bring more valuable insights from the mission.

Published by: Sky Headlines

Space Missions
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12 min read

NASA Invites Humanity to Join the Artemis Mission Series and Explore the Space!

Have you ever dreamed of walking on the Moon or exploring the mysteries of space? NASA’s Artemis mission is a program that will make those dreams a reality. The Artemis program aims to land humans on the Moon, establish a long-term presence on and around the Moon, and eventually send astronauts to Mars. But the mission is not just about exploration and discovery. Artemis will also demonstrate new technologies and inspire the next generation of space explorers.

Now you probably be wondering,

What is NASA’s Artemis mission?

Artemis is the name of NASA’s program that seeks to achieve multiple objectives. The program aims to land humans on the Moon. To establish a long-term human presence on and around the Moon, and eventually send astronauts to Mars. To achieve these goals, Artemis will rely on innovative technologies to explore more of the lunar surface than ever before, and NASA will collaborate with commercial and international partners.

The Artemis program has set forth several objectives that it aims to achieve. One of its key objectives is to demonstrate new technologies, capabilities, and business approaches needed for future exploration, including Mars. In addition, Artemis seeks to study the Moon to gain insights into the origin and history of Earth, the Moon, and our solar system.

Furthermore, the program aims to establish American leadership and a strategic presence on the Moon, expanding U.S. global economic impact. It also seeks to broaden commercial and international partnerships, which will be crucial for the program’s success. Finally, Artemis aims to inspire a new generation and encourage careers in STEM, positioning the next generation to lead future space exploration missions.

So, here are

Some amazing facts about Artemis Mission!

Artemis is named after the twin sister of Apollo and the goddess of the Moon in Greek mythology.
NASA chose the name to symbolize its efforts to return astronauts, science payloads, and technology demonstrations to the lunar surface.
The tip of the A in the Artemis logo points beyond the Moon to signify that the Moon is not the end goal. But rather a preparation for future exploration beyond it.
The crescent in the logo represents missions from the perspective of the audience, with the focus on going from Earth to the Moon and returning with knowledge and development.
The crescent also resembles Artemis’ bow, which represents the source of energy and effort sent toward the Moon.
The Moon is the primary destination for the Artemis program and a stepping stone toward Mars.
The trajectory in the logo moves from left to right through the crossbar of the A. It highlights the differences in the return to the Moon compared to the Apollo missions.
The red color of the trajectory represents the course to Mars.
The A in the logo represents an arrowhead from Artemis’ quiver and symbolizes the launch of missions.

Let’s start with the,

Artemis 1!

After four delays, Artemis 1 was launched on November 16 at 1:47 am EST (6:47 am GMT). Artemis I is NASA’s first flight test of their deep space exploration system. It includes the Orion spacecraft, Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, and ground systems at Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida. This uncrewed mission is the first in a series of increasingly complex missions that are establishing a foundation for human deep space exploration and demonstrating NASA’s commitment and capability to extend human existence to the Moon and beyond.

Now, here is the,

Map of Artemis 1!

Artemis 1 was a test flight of the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and the Orion spacecraft. Scientists designed it to demonstrate their ability to travel to the Moon and beyond. The mission began on November 30, 2021, with the launch of the SLS rocket from NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The spacecraft traveled a total distance of approximately 450,000 kilometers to the Moon. As there it entered a lunar orbit at an altitude of 400 kilometers above the lunar surface. A trans-lunar injection burn followed. As it sent the spacecraft approximately 64,373 kilometers beyond the Moon and into deep space.

During the mission, the spacecraft carried out a series of tests and maneuvers, including a flyby of the Moon, a test of the Orion spacecraft’s heat shield, and a demonstration of its communication and navigation systems. On December 11, 2021, after a mission lasting 25.5 days, the module landed in the Pacific Ocean close to California. The mission was a significant milestone in NASA’s Artemis program. As it aims to return humans to the Moon and establish a sustainable presence there by the end of the decade.

It’s worth noting that the Space Launch System is the most powerful rocket ever built. As it generates 8.8 million pounds of thrust on liftoff. This makes it 1.3 million pounds more powerful than the Saturn V rocket used in the Apollo missions, and capable of carrying larger payloads and traveling further into space.

Continuing with the mission briefing,

What is the current status of the Artemis 1 mission?

NASA’s Artemis I mission is an uncrewed flight test. It successfully demonstrated the agency’s deep space rocket, spacecraft, and ground systems readiness for future missions to the Moon. Engineers have extensively reviewed data since the mission’s completion to confirm the initial observations. It includes the performance of the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and Orion spacecraft. The SLS rocket flew precisely as designed, meeting or exceeding performance expectations. While the Exploration Ground Systems program is repairing damaged components and making upgrades in preparation for future Artemis missions.

The Orion spacecraft successfully performed every aspect of its journey beyond the Moon, including generating more power than expected and consuming less power than predicted. NASA is examining two observations from the flight in more detail. These include variations across the appearance of Orion’s heat shield and an issue where latching current limiters switched open without commanding several times throughout the mission. Despite these issues, NASA is making progress toward the Artemis II mission. Along with the heat shield set to be attached to the crew module in May and the mobile launcher undergoing testing this summer. The agency is determined to ensure crew safety is a top priority for future missions.

Now let’s dig in to find out,

Artemis 2!

Artemis II marks a significant milestone in NASA’s quest for deep space exploration. As it will be the first manned mission of the Orion spacecraft, Space Launch System rocket, and ground systems at Kennedy Space Center. With four astronauts aboard, the mission will test the spacecraft’s systems in the actual environment of deep space and confirm their operational readiness for future missions. The Artemis II flight test will be crucial in paving the way for the historic Artemis III mission. Because it aims to land the first woman and next man on the Moon.

Here is,

Map of Artemis 2!

Artemis 2 is the second planned mission of NASA’s Artemis program and is currently scheduled for launch in 2024. The mission will be crewed by four astronauts. It will be the first time humans have traveled beyond low Earth orbit since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. The Space Launch System (SLS) rocket will launch the mission into space. And the crew will fly the Orion spacecraft to a distance of 7402 kilometers beyond the Moon’s far side. A lunar flyby will follow it, allowing the crew to observe and study the lunar surface from a closer distance.

The spacecraft will then return to Earth, and the mission is expected to take between eight to ten days to complete. During the mission, the crew will collect valuable flight test data. It will help NASA refine its plans for future crewed missions to the Moon and beyond. It’s worth noting that Artemis 2 is a crucial step towards NASA’s goal of returning humans to the Moon and establishing a sustainable presence there by the end of the decade. By testing the Orion spacecraft and the SLS rocket in a crewed mission beyond low Earth orbit, NASA will be one step closer to achieving this goal.

Now here are some more details on this mission,

What is the current status of the Artemis 2 mission?

NASA’s Artemis II is the first crewed Artemis mission that will send four astronauts around the Moon and return them home. It has achieved a significant milestone in its development. Teams have fully integrated all five major Space Launch System (SLS) rocket core stage structures at NASA’s Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans. The engine section was joined to the rest of the rocket stage on March 17. It is located at the bottom of the 212-foot-tall core stage. The next step will be to integrate the four RS-25 engines into the engine section to complete the stage.

The engine section is the most complex and intricate part of the rocket stage, housing the engines and including vital systems for mounting, controlling, and delivering fuel from the propellant tanks to the engines. The RS-25 engines and the two solid rocket boosters. They together generate 8.8 million pounds of thrust at takeoff, also attach to it. The core stage for Artemis II is built, outfitted, and assembled at Michoud. Through Artemis missions, NASA aims to land the first woman and the first person of color on the surface of the Moon It paves the way for a long-term lunar presence. It also serves as a stepping stone for astronauts on the way to Mars.

Published by: Sky Headlines

Space Missions
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10 min read

Challenger disaster: The tragic event that changed space exploration forever

On January 28, 1986, a catastrophic event occurred that shocked the world and forever changed the future of space exploration. At 11:39:13 EST (16:39:13 UTC), the Space Shuttle Challenger, with its crew of seven aboard, broke apart just 73 seconds into its flight, losing all crew members. The Challenger disaster occurred off the coast of Florida, in the Atlantic Ocean, and was caused by the failure of an O-ring seal in the right Solid Rocket Booster (SRB), due to cold weather and wind shears. The impact of this tragedy was profound, leading to the cancellation of the Teacher in Space Project and subsequent civilian shuttle spaceflights, as well as the grounding of the entire Shuttle fleet for the implementation of new safety measures.

Let’s find out,

Construction and Features:

NASA’s second Space Shuttle orbiter, Challenger (OV-099), was a Structural Test Item (STA-099). The decision to build STA-099 was made due to the low production rate of the Orbiters, which made it necessary to have a prototype vehicle that could be converted into a flight vehicle later on. The purpose of the STA-099 was to undergo structural testing to validate computational models and to show compliance with the required 1.4 factor of safety. The testing was performed to a safety factor of 1.2 times the design limit loads to prevent damage during structural testing.

NASA initially planned to convert the prototype orbiter, Enterprise (OV-101), which was used for flight testing, as the second operational orbiter. But, design changes made during the construction of the first orbiter, Columbia (OV-102), would have required considerable rework. Although STA-099’s qualification testing averted damage, NASA found that reconstructing STA-099 as OV-099 would be less expensive than refitting Enterprise.

Challenger had some design modifications as compared to its predecessor, Columbia. Most of the tiles on the payload bay doors, top wing surface, and rear fuselage surface were replaced with DuPont white Nomex felt insulation, resulting in a Thermal Protection System with fewer tiles. This change allowed Challenger to carry a more payload of 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) than Columbia. Challenger was the first orbiter to carry a head-up display system. Scientists used the system during the descent phase of a mission. The head-up display supplied crucial information to the crew during the landing.

Moreover, it comes about

Flights and Modifications:

Challenger made its first flight on April 4, 1983, and quickly became the primary orbiter in NASA’s Space Shuttle fleet, flying more missions per year than Columbia. In fact, between 1983 and 1984, Challenger flew on 85% of all Space Shuttle missions. Challenger, Discovery, and other Space Shuttles were in heavy use during the early 1980s. It flew three missions a year from 1983 to 1985. Challenger and Discovery underwent modifications at Kennedy Space Center. The modifications allowed them to carry the Centaur-G upper stage in their payload bays. Challenger’s next mission, had STS-51-L been successful, was to deploy the Ulysses probe with the Centaur. The Ulysses probe would have studied the polar regions of the Sun.

Challenger achieved many milestones during its spaceflight career. The milestones included being the first for many groups, such as the first American woman, African-American, and Canadian in space. Challenger also completed three Spacelab missions and performed the Space Shuttle’s first night launch and landing. However, Challenger is most remembered for the tragic loss of the orbiter and its seven-member crew. The loss occurred on January 28, 1986, during mission STS-51-L. The debris of the vessel was collected and stored in decommissioned missile silos at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Occasionally, different pieces of debris from the orbiter wash up on the Florida coast and are transported to the silos for storage. It’s worth noting that Challenger was the only Space Shuttle that never wore the NASA “meatball” logo, due to its early loss.

Here is to discuss,

What was the disaster Of Challenger?

Space Shuttle Challenger — ***Credit: NASA***

Tragically, Challenger met its demise during its tenth mission, STS-51-L, on January 28, 1986. The Space Shuttle was destroyed just 73 seconds into the flight, at an altitude of approximately 46,000 feet. The cause of the Challenger disaster was later determined to be an O-ring seal failure on the right solid rocket booster (SRB). The O-rings failed to seal properly due to various factors, including cold weather. A plume of flame was able to escape from the SRB due to the failed O-ring seal.

The escaping flame caused the structural failure of the external fuel tank (ET) and the SRB. The structural failure of the ET and SRB caused the vehicle to break apart. The break-up of the vehicle occurred under the stress of aerodynamic loads. The loss of the seven crew members on board was a tragic outcome of the disaster. The Challenger disaster was a significant setback for the Space Shuttle program. They grounded the Space Shuttle fleet for nearly three years as a result of the tragedy.

When it comes about,

The views of Janet Petro

Janet Petro, who is the Kennedy Space Center Director, says: “Challenger and her crew live on in the hearts and memories of both NASA and the nation,” Moreover, she added: “Today, as we turn our sights again toward the Moon and Mars, we see that the same love of exploration that drove the Challenger crew is still inspiring the astronauts of today’s Artemis Generation, calling them to build on the legacy of knowledge and discovery for the benefit of all humanity.”

Lastly,

When did the world see Challenger’s sad loss?

January 28, 1986, the world saw the Challenger’s sad loss. President Ronald Reagan appointed a special commission to investigate the cause of the disaster. The commission was tasked with developing corrective measures. Former secretary of state William Rogers led the commission. The commission included notable figures such as former astronaut Neil Armstrong and former test pilot Chuck Yeager.

The investigation found an “O-ring” seal failed in one of the two solid-fuel rockets. The O-ring was to be elastic and pliable. The O-ring did not respond as expected due to the cold temperature at launch time. The failure of the O-ring caused a breach in the seal. Hot gases escaped through the breach and damaged critical parts of the space shuttle. The damage caused by the hot gases led to the catastrophic failure of the Challenger.

As a result of the investigation, NASA suspended all manned spaceflights for more than two years while it redesigned and improved various features of the space shuttle. The commission’s recommendations led to changes in NASA’s safety protocols and a renewed focus on safety in the space program. The lessons learned from the Challenger disaster continue to inform NASA’s approach to space exploration today.

To sum it up:

Bill Nelson, NASA’s Administrator, says: “While it has been nearly 37 years since seven daring and brave explorers lost their lives aboard Challenger, this tragedy will forever be seared in our country’s collective memory. For millions around the globe, myself included, Jan. 28, 1986, still feels like yesterday,” Moreover, he says: “This discovery allows us to pause once again, to uplift the legacies of the seven pioneers we lost, and to reflect on how this tragedy changed us. At NASA, the core value of safety is – and must forever remain – our top priority, especially as our missions explore more of the cosmos than ever before.”

Published by: Sky Headlines

Space Missions
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9 min read

CO2 emissions by country tracked by NASA’s OCO-2 satellite

Researchers used satellite measurements to determine CO2 emissions by country and carbon uptake at the national level. Using a NASA satellite that looks at Earth, CO2 emissions in more than 100 countries worldwide have been tracked. This project provides information on the amount of carbon dioxide released by certain countries. It also measures the carbon dioxide absorbed by natural “sinks” like forests. Accordingly, the results can demonstrate the usefulness of space-based technologies in helping countries meet their climate goals. Hence, these technologies can provide valuable information about the Earth’s climate.

Now the point is that,

What is the importance of NASA’s OCO-2?

The launch of the OCO-2 satellite was in 2014. Three camera-like spectrometers map natural and human-made carbon dioxide levels. So, these spectrometers detect carbon dioxide’s distinctive spectra. Afterward, measuring how much sunlight a column of air absorbs from the gas, they indirectly estimate the gas.

Moreover, over 60 scientists worldwide took part in an international study that used data from NASA’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) mission and observations from the ground to figure out how much carbon dioxide in the air will change from 2015 to 2020. Anyhow, Researchers could estimate how much carbon dioxide was released and taken in by using this measurement-based or “top-down” method.

Even though the OCO-2 mission wasn’t meant to figure out how much each nation emitted, the study results are helpful because the first Global Stock take, which will look at how well the world is doing in meeting the goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement, is set for 2023. All in all the study looked at information on CO2 emissions by country.

NASA Earth Science Division Director Karen St. Germain says: “NASA is focused on delivering Earth science data that addresses real- climate challenges – like helping governments around the world measure the impact of their carbon mitigation efforts,” Moreover, she said: “This is one example of how NASA is developing and enhancing efforts to measure carbon emissions in a way that meets user needs.”

Altogether, here arises the question,

How does bottom-up and top-down approach play a role in measuring carbon emissions?

In order to measure carbon emissions, the conventional approach involves calculating the amount of carbon dioxide released in various sectors, including transportation and agriculture this method, called “bottom-up,” is significant for keeping track of efforts to reduce emissions. But making these carbon inventories takes a lot of time and requires expertise and knowledge of the activities involved.

The study’s authors suggest a “top-down” approach that builds a database of emissions and removals to deal with this problem. This method could benefit countries that need more money to make inventories. The authors’ research includes information from over 50 countries that have not reported their emissions in the last ten years.

So here is the point to know that,

How do ecological changes and fossil fuels lead to the emission of carbon dioxide?

Tracking fossil fuel emissions and carbon in ecosystems, including trees, bushes, and soils, provides a unique perspective. Hence, this information is beneficial for keeping track of changes in carbon dioxide levels caused by changes in land cover. In addition, deforestation is the leading cause of carbon emissions in the Global South. Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania form the Global South. In some regions, land management and reforestation have reduced atmospheric carbon. Therefore, the effects of deforestation on global carbon emissions vary by region.

The authors say that traditional “bottom-up” methods are essential for figuring out how much carbon dioxide an ecosystem puts out and how much it takes in. But these methods can be brutal when there needs to be more data or the overall effects of logging must be fully understood.

Philippe Ciais, study author and research director of France’s Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement, says: “Our top-down estimates provide an independent estimate of these emissions and removals, so although they cannot replace the detailed process understanding of traditional bottom-up methods, we can check both approaches for consistency,”

After all, we should know that,

Why is it critical to monitor the carbon balance of unmanaged ecosystems and identify any changes in carbon uptake?

The study presents a multifaceted understanding of the movement of carbon across Earth’s land, oceans, and atmosphere.

In addition to the human activities included in national inventories, unmanaged ecosystems can absorb carbon from the atmosphere. This can help mitigate the effects of global warming, particularly in tropical and boreal forests where human activity is minimal.

Australian university professor and research author Noel Cressie says: “National inventories are intended to track how management policies impact emissions and removals of CO2,” Moreover, he says: “However, the atmosphere doesn’t care whether CO2 is being emitted from deforestation in the Amazon or wildfires in the Canadian Arctic. Both processes will increase the concentration of atmospheric CO2 and drive climate change. Therefore, it is critical to monitor the carbon balance of unmanaged ecosystems and identify any changes in carbon uptake.”

The researchers concluded that their pilot experiment has room for improvement in revealing trends in national emissions.

NASA scientist and lead author Brendan Byrne works at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California, says about CO2 emissions by country: “Sustained, high-quality observations are critical for these top-down estimates,” Moreover, he says: “Continued observations from OCO-2 and surface sites will allow us to track how these emissions and removals change as the Paris Agreement is implemented. So, future international missions that provide an expanded mapping of CO2 concentrations across the globe will allow us to refine these top-down estimates and give more precise estimates of countries’ emissions and removals.”

So, here is

List of the countries along with the annual emission of carbon dioxide:

#	Country	CO2 Emissions (tons, 2016)	1 Year Change	Population (2016)	Per capita	Share of world
1	China	10,432,751,400	-0.28%	1,414,049,351	7.38	29.18%
2	United States	5,011,686,600	-2.01%	323,015,995	15.52	14.02%
3	India	2,533,638,100	4.71%	1,324,517,249	1.91	7.09%
4	Russia	1,661,899,300	-2.13%	145,275,383	11.44	4.65%
5	Japan	1,239,592,060	-1.21%	127,763,265	9.7	3.47%
6	Germany	775,752,190	1.28%	82,193,768	9.44	2.17%
7	Canada	675,918,610	-1.00%	36,382,944	18.58	1.89%
8	Iran	642,560,030	2.22%	79,563,989	8.08	1.80%
9	South Korea	604,043,830	0.45%	50,983,457	11.85	1.69%
10	Indonesia	530,035,650	6.41%	261,556,381	2.03	1.48%
11	Saudi Arabia	517,079,407	0.92%	32,443,447	15.94	1.45%
12	Brazil	462,994,920	-6.08%	206,163,053	2.25	1.29%
13	Mexico	441,412,750	-2.13%	123,333,376	3.58	1.23%
14	Australia	414,988,700	-0.98%	24,262,712	17.1	1.16%
15	South Africa	390,557,850	-0.49%	56,207,646	6.95	1.09%
16	Turkey	368,122,740	5.25%	79,827,871	4.61	1.03%
17	United Kingdom	367,860,350	-6.38%	66,297,944	5.55	1.03%
18	Italy	358,139,550	0.84%	60,663,060	5.9	1.00%
19	France	331,533,320	2.11%	64,667,596	5.13	0.93%
20	Poland	296,659,670	2.67%	37,989,220	7.81	0.83%
21	Taiwan	276,724,868	1.91%	23,618,200	11.72	0.77%
22	Thailand	271,040,160	1.55%	68,971,308	3.93	0.76%
23	Malaysia	266,251,542	6.54%	30,684,654	8.68	0.74%
24	Spain	251,892,320	-3.12%	46,634,140	5.4	0.70%
25	Ukraine	233,220,080	8.03%	44,713,702	5.22	0.65%
26	Kazakhstan	231,919,540	1.64%	17,830,901	13.01	0.65%
27	Egypt	219,377,350	4.72%	94,447,073	2.32	0.61%
28	United Arab Emirates	218,788,684	4.43%	9,360,980	23.37	0.61%
29	Vietnam	206,042,140	0.09%	93,640,422	2.2	0.58%
30	Argentina	200,708,270	0.16%	43,508,460	4.61	0.56%
31	Pakistan	178,013,820	9.13%	203,631,353	0.87	0.50%
32	Venezuela	175,884,256	-1.90%	29,851,255	5.89	0.49%
33	Netherlands	163,419,285	1.63%	16,981,295	9.62	0.46%
34	Iraq	162,646,160	1.22%	36,610,632	4.44	0.45%
35	Algeria	156,220,560	0.17%	40,551,392	3.85	0.44%
36	Philippines	126,922,662	12.37%	103,663,816	1.22	0.35%
37	Czech Republic (Czechia)	111,825,428	1.39%	10,618,857	10.53	0.31%
38	Uzbekistan	109,347,340	1.60%	31,441,751	3.48	0.31%
39	Kuwait	101,492,225	1.36%	3,956,875	25.65	0.28%
40	Qatar	98,990,085	1.79%	2,654,374	37.29	0.28%
41	Belgium	94,722,813	1.53%	11,354,420	8.34	0.26%
42	Oman	87,835,773	2.09%	4,479,219	19.61	0.25%
43	Nigeria	82,634,214	0.70%	185,960,241	0.44	0.23%
44	Chile	81,258,525	5.33%	18,209,068	4.46	0.23%
45	Turkmenistan	79,279,216	0.63%	5,662,368	14	0.22%
46	Romania	78,770,824	1.69%	19,796,285	3.98	0.22%
47	Colombia	77,667,594	-0.84%	48,175,052	1.61	0.22%
48	Bangladesh	74,476,230	4.50%	157,977,153	0.47	0.21%
49	Austria	73,764,112	1.54%	8,747,301	8.43	0.21%
50	Greece	67,840,662	-3.47%	10,615,185	6.39	0.19%
51	Israel	65,201,588	-0.38%	8,108,985	8.04	0.18%
52	Belarus	62,655,669	4.90%	9,445,643	6.63	0.18%
53	North Korea	58,708,734	19.49%	25,307,665	2.32	0.16%
54	Morocco	57,694,464	0.54%	35,126,283	1.64	0.16%
55	Peru	57,692,879	8.16%	30,926,032	1.87	0.16%
56	Libya	52,696,075	1.52%	6,492,162	8.12	0.15%
57	Finland	51,183,960	3.62%	5,497,713	9.31	0.14%
58	Hungary	51,018,899	2.16%	9,752,975	5.23	0.14%
59	Bulgaria	50,872,910	-6.00%	7,151,953	7.11	0.14%
60	Portugal	50,142,844	-2.36%	10,325,538	4.86	0.14%
61	Singapore	48,381,759	2.56%	5,653,634	8.56	0.14%
62	Hong Kong	47,066,386	1.23%	7,243,542	6.5	0.13%
63	Sweden	44,694,415	4.33%	9,836,007	4.54	0.13%
64	Norway	43,456,012	0.85%	5,250,949	8.28	0.12%
65	Serbia	41,168,059	2.27%	8,853,963	4.65	0.12%
66	Ecuador	40,065,690	-4.85%	16,491,116	2.43	0.11%
67	Switzerland	39,666,930	-2.30%	8,379,917	4.73	0.11%
68	Ireland	39,086,565	5.09%	4,695,779	8.32	0.11%
69	Syria	38,054,696	1.78%	17,465,575	2.18	0.11%
70	Denmark	38,007,645	5.23%	5,711,349	6.65	0.11%
71	Slovakia	36,817,242	1.74%	5,442,003	6.77	0.10%
72	Trinidad and Tobago	34,974,263	-5.92%	1,377,560	25.39	0.10%
73	Azerbaijan	33,614,235	-0.41%	9,736,043	3.45	0.09%
74	New Zealand	33,276,202	-0.14%	4,659,265	7.14	0.09%
75	Angola	30,566,933	3.13%	28,842,489	1.06	0.09%
76	Cuba	30,389,116	1.65%	11,335,104	2.68	0.08%
77	Tunisia	29,395,965	0.82%	11,303,945	2.6	0.08%
78	Bosnia and Herzegovina	25,674,120	0.86%	3,386,266	7.58	0.07%
79	Yemen	25,647,990	1.62%	27,168,208	0.94	0.07%
80	Bahrain	24,458,384	2.50%	1,425,792	17.15	0.07%
81	Dominican Republic	23,466,740	2.88%	10,397,741	2.26	0.07%
82	Jordan	22,772,370	1.83%	9,554,286	2.38	0.06%
83	Estonia	22,402,414	1.01%	1,316,510	17.02	0.06%
84	Lebanon	21,863,288	1.95%	6,714,281	3.26	0.06%
85	Bolivia	19,463,728	2.03%	11,031,814	1.76	0.05%
86	Croatia	19,408,194	3.02%	4,208,602	4.61	0.05%
87	Mongolia	18,574,260	18.09%	3,056,364	6.08	0.05%
88	Guatemala	18,539,316	2.42%	16,583,076	1.12	0.05%
89	Sri Lanka	18,454,691	8.55%	21,021,171	0.88	0.05%
90	Myanmar	16,701,776	5.61%	53,045,201	0.31	0.05%
91	Kenya	16,334,919	3.60%	49,051,534	0.33	0.05%
92	Montenegro	16,249,039	2.27%	627,264	25.9	0.05%
93	Slovenia	14,722,601	2.35%	2,074,210	7.1	0.04%
94	Ghana	14,469,986	3.54%	28,481,945	0.51	0.04%
95	Lithuania	13,685,264	2.66%	2,889,557	4.74	0.04%
96	Sudan	13,294,106	4.18%	39,847,439	0.33	0.04%
97	Panama	11,599,764	2.37%	4,037,078	2.87	0.03%
98	Ethiopia	10,438,855	4.03%	103,603,462	0.1	0.03%
99	Luxembourg	10,144,632	3.45%	579,264	17.51	0.03%
100	Zimbabwe	10,062,628	-4.17%	14,030,331	0.72	0.03%

Published by: Sky Headlines

Space Missions
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9 min read

Exploring the Mysteries of the Milky Way with the Gaia Mission

The Milky Way has been a subject of fascination and wonder for humans for decades. This magnificent spiral galaxy is our home in the universe and also contains billions of stars and countless mysteries waiting to be unraveled. For many years, astronomers struggled to understand the galaxy’s structure, evolution, and history due to the lack of precise data on its stars. But now, thanks to advancements in technology and space exploration, we now have a better understanding of our galaxy’s structure and evolution. One such breakthrough is the Gaia mission.

Launched by the European Space Agency (ESA) in 2013, the Gaia mission aims to chart the positions, distances, and also motions of a billion stars in the Milky Way and its neighboring galaxies. Gaia has an advanced telescope and imaging sensors. These have allowed it to gather an unprecedented amount of data. This data has revolutionized our understanding of the Milky Way’s past, present, and future.

What is the Gaia Mission?

The Gaia mission is a space observatory designed to measure the positions, distances, and motions of more than one billion stars in the Milky Way. Moreveor, The spacecraft operates at the second Lagrange point (L2) of the Sun-Earth system, about 1.5 million kilometers from Earth. Furthermore, Gaia uses two telescopes to observe the stars and collect data on their positions, brightness, and spectra.

Furhtermore, Gaia has two telescopes with focal plane arrays that scan the sky simultaneously. The spacecraft spins slowly to cover a larger area of the sky, and it takes about six months for Gaia to complete one full scan.

What has Gaia revealed about the Milky Way?

The Gaia mission has provided unprecedented insights into the Milky Way’s structure. Moreover, The Gaia mission has also shed light on the Milky Way’s evolution over time. Here are some of the key findings:

The Milky Way is old:

Gaia data suggests that the Milky Way is about 13.6 billion years old, roughly the same age as the universe.

The Milky Way grew by accretion:

Gaia data supports the idea that the Milky Way grew by accreting smaller galaxies over time. Moreover, Gaia has detected the remnants of several past collisions with smaller galaxies, including the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy.

The Milky Way’s star formation history:

Gaia data has also allowed astronomers to study the Milky Way’s star formation history in unprecedented detail. The data shows that the galaxy experienced bursts of star formation triggered by collisions with smaller galaxies.

The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy:

Gaia data confirms that our galaxy has a central bar-shaped structure, surrounded by spiral arms that extend outward.

The Milky Way’s disk is warped:

Gaia data also shows that the Milky Way’s disk is not flat but warped, likely due to interactions with nearby galaxies.

The Milky Way’s halo is inhomogeneous:

Gaia data reveals that the Milky Way’s halo, a roughly spherical region surrounding the galaxy, has a lumpy and uneven distribution of stars.

The Milky Way’s Formation and Evolution:

One of the primary goals of the Gaia mission is to trace the history of the Milky Way from its birth to the present day. Moreover, by measuring the positions and velocities of stars across the galaxy, Gaia has provided astronomers with a comprehensive 3D map of the Milky Way’s structure and dynamics.

The data also reveals that the Milky Way’s formation began with the collapse of clouds of gas and dust about 13.6 billion years ago. The first stars emerged from these clouds and formed the globular clusters we see today. Over time, the galaxy grew larger. This happened as smaller galaxies merged with it. These mergers triggered periods of intense star formation and shaped the structure of the galaxy.

Gaia has identified several “streams” of stars that were torn from smaller galaxies during their mergers with the Milky Way. Astronomers can study the colors and ages of these stars to reconstruct the history of these galactic mergers. This process provides insights into the formation and evolution of the Milky Way.

The Dark Matter Mystery:

The Gaia mission has also shed light on the mysterious substance known as dark matter, which makes up around 85% of the universe’s mass but cannot be directly observed. Dark matter exerts a gravitational force on stars and galaxies, and Gaia’s precise measurements of their motions have allowed astronomers to map the distribution of dark matter in the Milky Way.

The data suggests that the Milky Way’s dark matter halo is not a simple spherical shape, as previously believed, but is instead elongated and twisted. This finding challenges our current understanding of dark matter and raises new questions about its nature and properties.

Galactic Archaeology:

Another exciting field of research enabled by the Gaia mission is galactic archaeology. By studying the ages and compositions of stars across the galaxy, astronomers can trace the Milky Way’s history and evolution. Gaia has identified a group of stars that are moving in the opposite direction to the rest of the galaxy. This discovery indicates that these stars may have come from a smaller, merging galaxy.

Gaia has also revealed that the Milky Way’s spiral arms are not static structures, but rather dynamic and constantly changing. This discovery suggests that the spiral arms may be the result of galactic mergers or interactions with neighboring galaxies.

How has the Gaia mission impacted astronomy?

The Gaia mission has had a significant impact on astronomy, providing a wealth of data for researchers to study. Here are some of the ways that Gaia has influenced astronomy:

Improved understanding of the Milky Way:

Gaia has also provided unprecedented insights into the structure and evolution of the Milky Way. This has advanced our understanding of our home galaxy.

New insights into star formation:

Gaia’s data on star formation has allowed astronomers to study the birth and evolution of stars in greater detail.

Insights into the dark matter:

Gaia has also contributed to our understanding of dark matter, the mysterious substance that makes up most of the matter in the universe. Gaia data has helped astronomers map the distribution of dark matter in the Milky Way.

Long story short:

The Gaia mission has provided a wealth of data that has allowed astronomers to study the Milky Way in unprecedented detail. Thanks to Gaia, we now have a better understanding of our home galaxy’s structure, evolution, and star formation history. The mission has also had a significant impact on astronomy, providing insights into dark matter and other mysteries of the universe. As the mission continues, we can expect even more groundbreaking discoveries in the years to come.

Published by: Sky Headlines

Space Missions
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5 min read

Mission Space: Orange vs Green – Choosing the Right Thrill at Disney World’s Epcot

Mission Space: Orange vs Green!

Have you ever wondered, what it is like to be an astronaut? Are you of space adventure and travel? Then “Mission: Space – EPCOT at Walt Disney World” is what you should be enjoying right now! Mission: Space Orange vs Green appears to be just another thrilling ride at EPCOT.

Epcot is a theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida.

If you have never listened to it, No worries! You will get to know each and everything about “Mission: SPACE” in this blog. We will be further discussing the two thrilling rides Orange and Green as well. So let’s dig in!

Mission Space!

Mission: Space Orange vs Green is designed to give visitors a realistic experience of what it would be like to travel into space. This ride is unique and wonderful. In order to make this fun ride even more realistic effects such as wind, shaking chairs, as well as centrifugal forces that simulate the g-forces of launch and landing is added to the ride.

At the International Space Training Center, you’ll be onboard the X-2 Deep Space Shuttle (ISTC). The ride lasts for about 4 minutes. But before you get started, First, make a crew! Four cadets have to collaborate together on the space shuttle. Each of your four cadets will play an important role: navigator, pilot, commander, or engineer. Cadets will be instructed to initiate a mission-critical sequence during their flight.

What you may not know is that there are two versions of “Mission Space,”. There are two versions of this thrilling ride. One of which is Orange and the other one is Green. So, what’s the difference between these two experiences? Why is it called Mission Space: Orange vs Green and which should you choose?

What is Mission Space: Orange vs Green?

Mission Space: Orange vs Green, two thrilling rides at Walt Disney World Resort’s Epcot Center, have captivated guests since they first opened their doors. But what distinguishes each ride? Let’s take a closer look.

Mission Space Orange

Mission Orange is a more extreme version of the ride, and it’s designed to be an intense, immersive experience. The orange team is tasked with flying the spacecraft, and riders feel the full force of the liftoff and other physical sensations. This version is recommended for thrill-seekers who love intense experiences and are not sensitive to motion sickness. Space explorers of about 44” and taller are onboard for this mission.

Mission Space Green

Mission Green is a less intense version of the ride, designed for younger children and those who may be sensitive to motion sickness. The green team is tasked with conducting various scientific experiments on the spacecraft, and the physical sensations are much milder. This version is recommended for families with young children or those who are prone to motion sickness. However, the Green mission offers astronauts 40” and taller.

So which one should you choose?

You can choose either Orange or Green. It completely depends on your personal preferences and tolerance for intense experiences. The Orange version of the ride is an intense and thrilling experience that simulates a journey to Mars. Mission Space Orange is definitely the way to go if you love intense, thrilling rides.

However, If you’re prone to motion sickness or you’re traveling with young children, Mission Space Green is a great option that still offers a fun, space-themed experience without intense physical sensations. The Green version is a milder, yet still exciting, experience designed for families with younger children or those who prefer a gentler ride.

Both rides offer a unique experience that you will never forget.

Bottom line!

Lastly, If you’re a fan of theme parks with space themes, you must visit Mission Space at Epcot in Disney World. This famous ride simulates a space mission to Mars, complete with the sensation of liftoff and weightlessness. Mission Space: Orange vs Green is a unique and exciting experience with distinct intensity levels. No matter which version you choose, you’re sure to have a blast as you explore the wonders of space.

Published by: Sky Headlines

Space Missions
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1
3 min read

Europe is ready to set off for another mission to explore Jupiter’s icy moons

Europe is about to embark on one of its largest-scale space missions to examine Jupiter’s icy moons. After being put through its final testing in Toulouse, France, the Juice satellite will be transported to its launch site in South America and take off in April. The six-ton spacecraft will make quick flybys of Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa and use special instruments to check for signs of habitability. Although the Jovian system is located far from the sun, it gets enough energy from Jupiter that liquid water could be pooled beneath its surface; an element necessary for life. It is an 8.5-year journey of about 6.6 billion km.

The European Space Agency (ESA) team behind this project gathered this week and gave the ‘go for launch’ command. Airbus, who spearheaded the construction of Juice for a cost of €1.6bn (£1.4bn; $1.7bn), also has drawn expertise and components from across Europe. Special radar will search inside Jupiter’s icy moons; and create 3D maps of their surfaces. Moreover, magnetometers will discover their electrically charged environments; and sensors that capture particles orbiting there.

The goal of the “Juice” mission is not to search for signs of life. Instead, it aims to determine if future missions can examine the signs of life in more detail. This may include sending a lander to drill into Mars’ crust to search for trapped liquid water. This ambitious goal might become a reality by the end of the century. Working with outer space requires one to be patient!

What do experts say about Jupiter’s icy moons?

A thermal architect Séverine Deschamps said: “We have two big vaults inside the spacecraft to protect the computers from radiation and to maintain them through a network of pipes at the same level of temperature,” Moreover, he said: “The same is true for the propulsion system. Its operation has to be maintained around the 20C, quite warm, to get a good level of performance when firing.”

“In the case of Europa, it’s thought there’s a deep ocean, maybe 100km deep, underneath its ice crust,” Moreover, on BBC News Prof Emma Bunce from Leicester University, UK said about Europe’s mission to Jupiter’s icy moons: “That depth of the ocean is 10 times that of the deepest ocean on Earth, and the ocean is in contact, we think, with a rocky floor. So that provides a scenario where there is mixing and some interesting chemistry,”.

Juice arrives at Jupiter at that time, scheduled for July 2031. After making 35 flybys of each of the three moons, it will eventually make a permanent home near Ganymede in late 2034.

Hopefully, a lot of mysteries will be uncovered about Jupiter’s icy moons from this mission.

Published by: Sky Headlines

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The Milky Way is old:

The Milky Way grew by accretion:

The Milky Way’s star formation history:

The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy:

The Milky Way’s disk is warped:

The Milky Way’s halo is inhomogeneous:

The Milky Way’s Formation and Evolution:

The Dark Matter Mystery:

Galactic Archaeology:

How has the Gaia mission impacted astronomy?

Improved understanding of the Milky Way:

New insights into star formation:

Insights into the dark matter:

Long story short:

Mission Space!

What is Mission Space: Orange vs Green?

Mission Space Orange

Mission Space Green

So which one should you choose?

Bottom line!

What do experts say about Jupiter’s icy moons?

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